The Nile River is one of the world’s great geographical wonders, sustaining empires, ancient and modern, for thousands of years. In the Bible, the Nile (referred as the “River of Egypt”) is a prominent feature in various accounts. But what civilizations would you reach if you had sailed up the Nile, past Egypt? The Bible mentions a strong civilization due south of the Egyptian heartland. To the ancient Israelites, this was a distant, exotic land. It was an empire that at times grew powerful enough to pose a challenge to not only Egypt and the Israelite peoples, but even to civilizations beyond.
Welcome to Kush.
Alternately spelled Cush, and also known as the land of Nubia, Kush doesn’t feature as prominently in the biblical narrative as other, more proximate civilizations to Israel. But what the Bible does state, compared with the archaeological record, reveals a fascinating glimpse into this civilization on the periphery of the biblical world.
Kush is often translated in the King James Version, Jewish Publication Society and other translations as “Ethiopia.” The modern state of Ethiopia is further south of the primary Nubian heartland. (Our English word “Ethiopia” comes from the Greek name for black Africa south of Egypt in general. The Hebrew equivalent has a similar meaning.) Much of the time, references to Ethiopia/Kush relate to modern-day Sudan—in other words, the desert expanse following the Nile between Egypt and sub-Saharan Africa. This part of the Nile is defined by its frequent cataracts, or shallow rapids, making the river harder to navigate the further south one goes.
In the Beginning
Genesis 10 references the nation’s patriarchal ancestor, listing Cush as a descendant of Noah’s son Ham: “And the sons of Ham: Cush, and Mizraim, and Put, and Canaan” (verse 7). “Mizraim” is the Hebrew term for Egypt, so the ancestral patriarchs of Kush and Egypt were siblings. One hallmark of Kush is its affiliation with and adoption of cultural practices from Egypt.
As far as the archaeological record is concerned, the first major culture in Kush is what we call today the Kerma culture (circa 2500–1500 b.c.e.), after its most prominent city. Kerma culture remains stretch from the Nile’s second to fourth cataracts, a distance of roughly 200 miles. The city of Kerma gets its name from a modern nearby Sudanese town.
One of the challenges in learning about the Kerma culture is that we lack examples of writing. We do, however, have remains of impressive constructions from the early Kushites. Kerma’s most impressive building still standing is the Western Deffufa. A deffufa is a uniquely Nubian type of mudbrick temple. Kerma’s deffufa stands 18 meters (about 59 feet) tall. Archaeologists have also identified a palace, a royal audience hall and a royal cemetery at Kerma.
As the third millennium b.c.e. gave way to the second, Kerma culture blossomed. Pottery from both Upper (southern) and Lower (northern) Egypt found at Kerma suggests large trade networks. But peaceful relations wouldn’t last. Pharaoh Senusret iii (whose estimated reign stretched from 1837–1819 b.c.e.) launched four campaigns into Nubia, conquering Kushite territory and constructing numerous forts consolidating Egyptian control past the second cataract.
Meanwhile, in the 17th century b.c.e., a people known as the Hyksos from the Levant took control of Lower Egypt. Kush took their own opportunity at this time to push the Egyptians out of Nubia and even set up a presence in Upper Egypt.
Israel in Egypt
In 1908, British archaeologist George Herbert discovered a scribal copy of the wars of Pharaoh Kamose (who reigned in the mid-1500s b.c.e.). The Carnarvon Tablet has since been corroborated by two stelae from Karnak. Kamose reportedly intercepted an invitation from the Hyksos to Kush to carve up Egypt between the two. “[A] chieftan is in Avaris [the Hyksos capital], and another in Cush, and I sit united with an Asiatic and a Nubian, each man in possession of his slice of this Egypt,” Kamose stated. Kamose went to war with both powers and pushed them back. “I will grapple with him,” he stated, “and slit open his belly. My desire is to deliver Egypt and to smite the Asiatics.”
As outlined in our article “The Hyksos: Evidence of Jacob’s Family in Ancient Egypt?” the Hyksos are a good candidate for early Israelites inhabiting Egypt and have long traditionally been identified as such. With this in mind, there is a possible reference to Kush in the beginning of the book of Exodus. The first chapter relates how the Israelites entered Egypt and “waxed exceedingly mighty” (verse 7), to the point where the native Egyptians were afraid they would be perpetually subjugated (verse 8). Verse 10 records the fears of a pharaoh “who knew not Joseph”: “[C]ome, let us deal wisely with them, lest they multiply, and it come to pass, that, when there befalleth us any war, they also join themselves unto our enemies, and fight against us, and get them up out of the land.” One of Egypt’s main enemies at this time was Kush. Kamose feared an alliance between the Hyksos and the Kushites.
The next reference to Kush in the Bible is in the book of Numbers. “And Miriam and Aaron spoke against Moses because of the Cushite woman whom he had married; for he had married a Cushite woman” (Numbers 12:1). Some have assumed this is referring to Zipporah, Moses’s Midianite wife (Exodus 2:21). Nowhere in the Bible, however, is Zipporah referred to as a “Cushite.” Genesis 25:1-2 state that the Midianites were descendants of Abraham, a Shemite (closely related to the Israelites themselves).
The first-century c.e. historian Josephus wrote in Antiquities of the Jews that during his time as prince of Egypt, Moses commanded an Egyptian army to push back a Kushite force (Antiquities 2.10). According to Josephus, Moses defeated them and married a Kushite princess. This then provides an explanation for the account in Numbers 12:1—Moses calling on his Kushite wife, “whom he had married,” to join him. (For more information, read “Evidence of Moses’s ‘Conquest of Ethiopia’?”)
A New Reign in Napata
Kush wouldn’t remain a thorn in Egypt’s side for long. By the late 16th century b.c.e., Egypt had conquered Kush and made it a province. But Egyptian Kush was no backwater. Several powerful New Kingdom pharaohs brought to the region massive developmental projects. One of the most important was founding the city of Napata. Napata is located at the base of Jebel Barkal, a mountain the Egyptians considered the home of their chief god, Amun. Thutmose iii, one of Egypt’s most powerful pharaohs, founded a temple to Amun at the base of the mountain. Napata also had a priesthood dedicated to Amun.
From this point forward, for several centuries, Kushite culture would have heavy Egyptian influence, even after political control ended. When Egyptian domination ended in Kush is up for debate—but it was sometime after Egypt’s New Kingdom collapsed in the 11th century b.c.e.
Kush reemerges in the biblical narrative during the reign of Judah’s King Asa, who reigned throughout much of the early ninth century b.c.e. 2 Chronicles 14 records a threat Asa faced from Judah’s south: “And there came out against them Zerah the Ethiopian [Kushite] with an army of a thousand thousand, and three hundred chariots; and he came unto Mareshah. Then Asa went out to meet him, and they set the battle in array in the valley of Zephath at Mareshah” (verses 8-9). The chronicler then recorded Asa praying to God for deliverance from their enemies: “So the Lord smote the Ethiopians before Asa, and before Judah; and the Ethiopians fled. And Asa and the people that were with him pursued them unto Gerar; and there fell of the Ethiopians so that none remained alive; for they were shattered before the Lord, and before His host, and they carried away very much booty” (verses 11-13). 2 Chronicles 16:8 adds a detail: The Kushites had “Lubim”—an ancient name of Libyans—among their ranks.
The true identity of Zerah, and this event in general, remains obscure. The historical record likewise doesn’t confirm if Kush was independent of Egypt at this time. Certain scholars identify two pharaohs whose reigns coincided with Asa’s, Osorkon i and Osorkon ii, as potential candidates due to the similarities of their names (zer-akh versus o-sor-kon). Neither king was Kushite. But the origin of their dynasty was Libya. In any event, the Bible doesn’t say that Zerah was king over the army. He very well could have been a Kushite general in service to Egypt. For now, this episode remains a mystery.
The first-named, known independent king of Kush, Alara, reigned in the early eighth century b.c.e., with a capital at Napata. Alara’s successor, Kashta, installed his daughter Amenirdis i as “God’s Wife of Amun” (the high priestess of Egypt’s Amun cult) at Thebes, Upper Egypt’s longstanding capital.
Kush in Egypt
The god wife of Amun was a very prestigious position in Upper Egypt—prestigious enough for Amerindis to claim rule of Upper Egypt. Lower Egypt, meanwhile, was in turmoil. Kashta, taking advantage of the chaos, entered Thebes and declared himself pharaoh over all Egypt. This act founded Egypt’s 25th Dynasty. His successors—Piye, Shabataka and Shabaka—increasingly cemented control over Egypt. The conquered had become the conquerors: Kush was now ruling over Egypt.
Shabaka, who reigned sometime between the 710s and 690s b.c.e., is a noteworthy pharaoh. He moved Egypt’s capital back to Thebes, where he undertook many building projects. Shabaka also has a possible allusion in the Bible. His reign coincided with the explosion of a new power dominating the Middle East—Assyria. As Assyria’s Sennacherib began warring against Hezekiah’s Judah (a conflict well attested to in the archaeological record), an Assyrian emissary, Rabshakeh, visiting Jerusalem called for Hezekiah to surrender and specifically warned that Judah sever ties with Egypt: “Now, behold, thou trustest upon the staff of this bruised reed, even upon Egypt; whereon if a man lean, it will go into his hand, and pierce it; so is Pharaoh king of Egypt unto all that trust on him” (2 Kings 18:21). Which pharaoh was reigning during this period is unfortunately unclear, but Shabaka is the likely candidate for the pharaoh mentioned. (Notably, the Prophet Isaiah also warns Hezekiah at length against an alliance with Egypt.)
The archaeological record confirms Egypt/Kush’s role as a natural ally of Assyria’s enemies. Sennacherib recorded in his annals that the Philistine city of Ekron reached out to Egypt for safety. According to Sennacherib, “Ekron “called for help upon the kings of Egypt and the bowmen, chariotry and cavalry of the king of Nubia, an army beyond counting.” Sennacherib claimed he put down the uprising in Ekron.
The pharaoh to come next would be one of the most monumental rulers of Egypt, and the Near East in general: Taharqa.
Taharqa, a relative of Shabaka’s, originally came north from Kush at age 20 to command an army. He later led Shabataka’s troops in putting down a rebellion in Egypt. His reign spanned much of the first half of the seventh century b.c.e., becoming one of the most influential pharaohs of Egypt’s later period. He was a noted builder who commissioned new structures in cities like Memphis, Tanis and especially Thebes. He made significant renovations to Thebes’s famed Karnak Temple complex, including colonnades at various sanctuaries and a new temple to the god Osiris. Taharqa is even one of the few pharaohs named in the biblical account (e.g. 2 Kings 19:19; Isaiah 37:9—both mention “Tirhakah king of Ethiopia” fighting against the Assyrians).
During his early reign, Taharqa would succeed in keeping the Kushite empire free from foreign domination. But this wouldn’t last. Sennacherib’s son and successor, Esarhaddon (Isaiah 37:38), would launch a successful campaign in Egypt, taking the land for himself, forcing Taharqa to retreat to Kush proper and taking hostage Taharqa’s crown prince. Esarhaddon described his victory in his annals:
[F]rom the town of Ishkhupri to Memphis, his royal residence, a distance of 15 days, I fought daily, without interruption, very bloody battles against Tarqû [Taharqa], king of Egypt and Nubia, the one accursed by all the great gods. Five times I hit him with the point of arrows (causing) wounds (from which he should) not recover, and I laid siege to Memphis, his royal residence, and conquered it in half a day by means of mines, breaches and assault ladders; I destroyed (it), tore down (its walls) and burnt it down. His queen, the women of his palace, Ushanhuru, his crown prince, his other children, his possessions, horses, large and small cattle beyond counting, I carried away as booty to Assyria. All Nubians I have deported from Egypt, leaving not even one to do homage. Everywhere in Egypt, I appointed new kings, governors, officers, harbor overseers, officials and administrative personnel. I initiated regular sacrificial dues for Ashur and the great gods, my lords, for all times. I imposed upon them tribute due to me as overlord, annually without ceasing.
Esarhaddon commemorated his 671 b.c.e. victory with a stele that is now in Berlin’s Pergamon Museum. On the stele, Esarhaddon holds ropes that pass through the lips of two conquered captives. Scholars interpret one, stylized with Nubian features, as either Taharqa or his son. This echoes a biblical punishment of putting hooks in one’s enemy’s jaws (compare with Ezekiel 29:4 and 38:4. The other individual may well be King Manasseh—see here for more detail).
Egypt would pivot back and forth between rebellion and accepting Assyrian dominion for years.
Ethiopian Jews?
Assyria’s puppet pharaohs would start a new dynasty, causing a split with Kush. This dynasty would continue to rule Egypt even after Assyria’s fall. One of these pharaohs, Psamtik ii, launched a military campaign against Kush. Psamtik destroyed Napata but would not be able to maintain a hold over the land. The Kushite government moved south to the city of Meroe as a defensive measure. This took place about the year 590 b.c.e.; Meroe would remain Kush’s capital for nearly a thousand years, until the fourth century c.e.
Even though Kush’s political links with Egypt were gone, Egyptian influence continued. Meroe’s most famous archaeological features are its Egyptian-style pyramids. Beginning around 300 b.c.e. and continuing until Meroe’s fall, Kushites began using pyramid tombs in imitation of the pyramids of Egypt, though on a much smaller (and pointier) scale. Meroe holds about 80 pyramids, with the largest being roughly 30 meters (almost 100 feet) tall.
Beginning in the third century b.c.e., another interesting phenomenon occurs. A succession of queens called kandakes ruled Kush. Also known as candaces, these rulers introduced a form of matriarchy. Candace Amanirenas, who reigned in the latter half of the first century b.c.e., led troops into battle against the expanding Roman Empire. She successfully fought off the invading Romans and forced Emperor Augustus into a peace treaty.
It is just after this time, in the mid-first century c.e., that we get an interesting tidbit referencing Kush in the New Testament. Acts 8 recounts a story where the deacon Philip travels from Jerusalem toward Gaza: “And behold, a man of Ethiopia [Kush], a eunuch of great authority under Candace the queen of the Ethiopians, who had charge of all her treasury, and had come to Jerusalem to worship, was returning. And sitting in his chariot, he was reading Isaiah the prophet. Then the Spirit said to Philip, ‘Go near and overtake this chariot.’ So Philip ran to him, and heard him reading the prophet Isaiah” (verses 27-30; New King James Version).
The rest of the account shows the Kushite’s conversion to early Christianity. After being baptized by Philip, the biblical account suggests the man continued on his way to Kush rather than staying in the Holy Land.
There are several notable points that can be gleaned from this passage. That the eunuch could travel between Kush and the Roman Empire demonstrates the relative peace the two states had. The writer of Acts also doesn’t signify which queen of Kush the eunuch served, labelling her with the generic title of “Candace.” In classical times, the title Candace was used as a generic name for whoever was in power in Meroe at the time (similar to the use of “Pharaoh” as the king of Egypt’s “name” in the Hebrew Bible). Kushite history during this time is unfortunately very poorly documented, so we cannot be certain which candace the writer referred to. Finally, and perhaps most notably, the account in Acts suggests that the eunuch was a Kushite proselyte to Judaism. He was coming to Jerusalem to worship God and had a copy of the scriptures.
Egypt at this time had a massive Jewish community. But Acts suggests such influence was spreading beyond the Roman Empire into sub-Saharan Africa, with copies of the Bible making their way down the Nile to Kush. Whether the eunuch was alone or had the company of other Jewish converts in Kush is unknown. There is too little information on Kushite history in general to piece together the minutiae of daily life; but that this eunuch was of such great authority indicates the candace was at very least tolerant of his beliefs. And that she was tolerant of a member of her entourage worshipping the God of Israel indicates she would have tolerated a larger Jewish community developing within the region of Kush.
Eventually, Kush as a unified state collapsed sometime in the middle of the fourth century c.e. after losing a war against its southern neighbor, Aksum. Successor states arose and eventually converted to Coptic Orthodox Christianity—again, an Egyptian religious import. The Arab conquests of North Africa (and subsequent intermarriage between Arabs and black Africans) cemented the land of Sudan’s place in the Arab and Islamic worlds.
But the presence of Jews in Africa lived on. In Ethiopia proper, a community of Jewish Ethiopians developed, today known as Beta Israel. Racially, they look no different to other East Africans and have never accepted the Talmud or other post-Exile mainstream religious texts. Their version of the Torah is in Ge’ez, or the Classical Ethiopic language. But they obey the laws of the Bible. They keep the Sabbath, circumcise their children, and stay away from unclean meats. Most of the community, tens of thousands strong, immigrated to Israel in the 1980s and 1990s amid unrest in Ethiopia.
Their origin remains a point of debate. Some theorize they may constitute a population of converts via Jewish influence from southern Arabia. Various traditions hold them to be long-lost descendants of from the tribe of Dan, or even from King Solomon himself. Descent is one thing; as for the matter of conversion, perhaps Acts 8 gives a hint to how, for many, it all began: Believers in God journeying up the Nile, into Africa south of Egypt, carrying the scriptures with them.
Uncovering the Bible’s Buried Civilizations: The Assyrians
Uncovering the Bible’s Buried Civilizations: The Babylonians
Uncovering the Bible’s Buried Civilizations: The Canaanites
Uncovering the Bible’s Buried Civilizations: The Egyptians
Uncovering the Bible’s Buried Civilizations: The Hittites
Uncovering the Bible’s Buried Civilizations: The Kushites
Uncovering the Bible’s Buried Civilizations: The Moabites
Uncovering the Bible’s Buried Civilizations: The Persians
Uncovering the Bible’s Buried Civilizations: The Philistines
Uncovering the Bible’s Buried Civilizations: The Phoenicians
